Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and Its Adcances Essay

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Its Advances Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) affects 11-20% of veterans of the Iraq and Afghanistan wars, 10% of Gulf War veterans and 30% of Vietnam War veterans. With many young men and women shipping off to join the military service, the thought of being one of the 20 out of 100 coming back from the Iraq or Afghanistan wars to suffer from PTSD is a scary thought. Little is known about PTSD and all major research being done on PTSD has been completed in only the last 30 years. This excludes many of the veterans of World War 1 and World War 2, the most gruesome war in the last century. The government is steadily increasing the benefits and services available to veterans suffering from PTSD symptoms†¦show more content†¦There are also new advancements in the policy surrounding the classification of PTSD and what is needed to receive benefits. A survey conducted around post-deployment veterans from Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom (OEF/OIF) does a favorable job in identifying veterans with PTSD that have used VHA services for treatment or having been diagnosed with PTSD related symptoms post-deployment. The survey conducted by Brian Shiner, et al., was designed to â€Å"estimate the percentage of returning veterans with PTSD who are accessing VHA health care, based on the concept of coverage† (Shiner 814). Shiner and team based their denominator on veterans who had PTSD also having some other medical need that required them to utilize VA services prior to diagnosis while using a â€Å"diagnosis at an episode of care as the numerator† (Shiner 816). One crucial component of the Shiner study was that they excluded those who had future military service planned because those who were likely to receive treatment at a VA facility and be diagnosed with PTSD were those likely to be unfit for com bat or future military tours. According to the data compiled, Shiner and team estimated that â€Å"approximately 58% of veterans have used VA services to receive some PTSD-related treatment† (Shiner 819). The veterans, who are more likely to be treated for PTSD if they are over 25, live near a VA clinic, are diagnosed in a

The Tuckman Model Of Group Development Essay - 1864 Words

The Tuckman Model of Group Development has 5 stages: Forming, Storming, Norming, and Adjourning (Maples, 2008). During the first session of MOP, everyone was tasked with forming their own small project team. The very first class workshop activity involved meeting two new people and introducing one of them to the entire class. The aim of the activity was to indirectly assess who we would want to be in a team with, based on our perceptions of a person’s behaviour, values, and work ethic. Most people would want to be in a team with people similar to them on a surface level (age, gender, ethnicity) and on a deeper level (personality, attitudes, believes, values) (Liang, Shih, Chiang, 2015). We were free to choose whoever we wanted in our team under the condition that the team we form is diverse. My team members are Sara, Wei, Rijuta, Rohit, and Craig. We are one of the more, if not most, culturally diverse groups in the class because we hail from China, India, New Zealand and the Philippines. When looking at our majors, there was not much diversity because five of us are in Marketing and only Rohit is in Global Business. Only four of us in Marketing have been classmates in the previous term and prior to this term, we never experienced working together as a team. Sara told us she wanted to be in a team where everyone would pull their own weight, and she said that it looked that each of us wanted the same thing. The six of us agreed to form a team because we all valuedShow MoreRelatedTuckman s Stages Of Group Development Model1287 Words   |  6 PagesA Study on Tuckman’s Stages of Group Development Model 1. Introduction Over the past two decades, it seems that teamwork has become increasingly important and more companies have formed different teams and groups for various purposes (Samson Daft, 2012). It is proved that good teams can be highly productive, however, not every team is successful (Samson Daft, 2012). Forming a team can be time consuming and there are many problems related to teamwork, for example, social loafing might reduce theRead MoreTuckman1445 Words   |  6 Pagestuckman forming storming norming performing model Bruce Tuckman s 1965 Forming Storming Norming Performing team-development model Dr Bruce Tuckman published his Forming Storming Norming Performing model in 1965. He added a fifth stage, Adjourning, in the 1970s. The Forming Storming Norming Performing theory is an elegant and helpful explanation of team development and behaviour. Similarities can be seen with other models, such as Tannenbaum and Schmidt Continuum and especially with Hersey andRead MoreLeadership And The Life Cycle Of A Group . A Group Is A969 Words   |  4 PagesLeadership and the Life Cycle of a Group   A group is  a living thing, developing over time and adapting to the environment and expectations imposed upon it as it grows. When observed carefully, a pattern of distinct phases emerge in this growth process. It is important to recognize and take advantage of these various stages of development in order to maximize group effectiveness and efficiency. There are several different models for small group development, but Tuckman s model is probably the most famousRead MoreAnalysis Of Noclue Consultants1548 Words   |  7 Pageseffectively being dealt with to regain a health working environment. It was notice that the conflicts were not being acknowledged. According to Dave Mattson a professional development consultant. â€Å"Conflicts are unavoidable and can often arise when working on a project. But the differences are when the tension within the group does not create a healthy constructive criticism and stifles creative and diverse thinking solutions† (Mattson, 2015). Due to the varying conflicts, communications became theRead MoreTuckmans Team Development Model782 Words   |  4 PagesTUCKMANS TEAM DEVELOPMENT MODEL The four stages of team forming is an evergreen model used by countless facilitators who conduct teambuilding or leadership related workshops. Frequently, though – it is just touched upon in a very superficial way. The model though holds great substance and relevance while conducting experiential team building activities. Lets take a dive into the model: Overview In 1938, Dr. Bruce Tuckman, a renowned psychologist introduced the 4-stage team developmental model thatRead MoreStages Of : Forming, Dependency And Inclusion1282 Words   |  6 PagesStage One: Forming, Dependency and Inclusion When the group forms for the first time, members are depending on the group leader to provide guidance. â€Å"A major characteristic of this first stage of group development is the significant amount of member dependency on the designated leader† (Wheelan, 1994, p. 14). Each member is hoping they will be accepted and included as a member. According to Wheelan (2005a) â€Å"The initial stage of development focuses on issues of inclusion and dependency, as membersRead MoreThe Power And Influence Of The Group Essay1410 Words   |  6 PagesThe Power and Influence of the Group American culture is obsessed with the individual psyche. Our cultural narratives emphasize individualism. â€Å"Our self-help books, the war on drugs, educational reform, and social research focuses, in general, on understanding and helping individuals overcome their obstacles to growth and development† (Wheelan, 1994, p. xii). We are an individualistic society with a tendency to over look the power of the group. Nonetheless, â€Å"groups influence our behavior as muchRead MorePersonal Team Effectiveness Individual Assessment1748 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction Bruce W. Tuckman is an educational psychologist from Princeton University. In 1960’s, he proposed Tuckman’s Stages of Team Development.   It is widely known as a basis for effective team building. It is describes four stages of useful development: forming, storming, norming and performing. In the 1970’s, Tuckman and other authors have added adjourning as the fifth stage. Tuckmans model explains that as the teams growth, ability and building the relationship. However, this is the mostRead MoreElements Of Primary, Intimate, And Task Groups1731 Words   |  7 Pageslooking at and researching groups that have elements of primary, intimate, and task groups in the storming or conflict stage of group development, it is relatively easy to identify previous literature that has analyzed at least one element of this classification. Previous research has looked at almost every aspect of the three groups, including: dynamics of groups that involve same-sex members, interna l group conflict, development of groups, and legitimacy in peer groups. However, most of the researchRead MoreThe Importance Of An Efficient Leader, A Good Team Member934 Words   |  4 Pagesleader, a good team member, and to understand the dynamics of a group. Everyone wants to achieve their goals. What better way to get there than to share the work? Groups are an effective way to reach your goals. One mind is always better than two. Warren Bennis once said â€Å"Leadership is the capacity to translate vision into reality.† I have found this statement very true you need to see and prepare for your goal as a group. Being in a group is not just about leading or participating it is about becoming

Music Through The Decades Essay Example For Students

Music Through The Decades Essay Rock music emerged in the second half of the 20th century, forever altering the landscape of popular music. The new sound, articulated the passions and beliefs of a new generation, and has since influenced a wide range of genres, from folk to disco to hip-hop. The musical styling that have accompanied the social, cultural, and political developments of the late 20th and early 21st centuries form the subjects of these entertaining and informative volumes. Sasss sasss In the mid-Sasss, Jazz was being played in dance halls, roadhouses, and radios all over the country. Radios and phonograph records were bringing Jazz to locations so emote that no band could reach them. And the music itself was beginning to change. The popular dance music of the time was not Jazz, but there were early forms taking shape in the evolving blues-ragtime experimental area that would soon turn into Jazz. Popular Tin Pan Alley composers like Irving Berlin incorporated ragtime influence into their compositions, though they rarely used the specific musical devices that were second nature to Jazz players. The Sasss were Broadways prime years, with over 50 new musicals opening in just one season. Record numbers of people paid up to $3. 0 for a seat at a musical. It was also a decade of incredible artistic developments in the musical theatre. The Broadway shows were produced by showmen who took musical theatre seriously and tried to provide quality entertainment while making a profit at the same time. This attitude kept the musical theatre booming right through the sass. Among the hundreds of popular musical comedies that debuted on Broadway in the early sass, two classic examples of the Broadway musical of that era are Sally and No, No, Nanette. The music of the sasss wasnt sad and depressing, it was Jazzy and happy, and so t gave people inspiration and cheered them up during the Great Depression. The popular kind of music was still Jazz. The main instruments were piano, clarinet, saxophone, and trumpet. Popular music in the sass comprised of swing, Jazz and big band music early in the decade. These styles suffered in popularity due to musicians strikes in 1942 and 1948 and eventually gave way to crooners later in the decade. Sasss The Sasss were a time of changes and the music of the decade both reflected the cultural changes that were happening while still holding on to the societal norms of the past. Rhythm Blues (R) and Rock n Roll popularized as black music and many African-American musicians rose and enjoyed success, but while some were able to reap the benefits of their work, many others were forgotten or denied access to audiences through segregation. A lot of people believe that during the fifties many of the white artists stole music from African-Americans and capitalized on it for their own benefit in a way that the original artists could not. Music Through The Decades By greengrocers the gap between blacks and whites and further the civil rights movement. While hose genres paved the way for future music, traditional pop and country music clung to the past with old standards remaining popular and a multitude of covers topping the charts. Either way, this decade was a time of innovation that helped to influence everything that we listen to on the radio today. Sasss Pop music gradually became controlled by new young vocal-groups, taking their power from a combination of the performers charisma along with the songwriting talents of the production team, who operated behind the scenes. Eventually rock artists came to be expected to write and even produce their own songs, becoming expansible for everything about how their records sounded. Asss The sasss, the decade that gave us everything from All In the Family to the Brady Bunch, from the last of the hippies to the first of the preppies, from bluebottle Jeans to polyester, from the Watergate scandal to the Iranian hostage crisis, and every kind of music from acid rock to funk and disco. Sasss The sass was a decade of revolutionary changes on the music scene. The two major developments were the advent of MET and the compact disc. Music became more diverse, with new wave, h eavy metal, rap, techno pop, alternative rock and the new country sounds. .ua052b0c8858f42154a408ff98828c222 , .ua052b0c8858f42154a408ff98828c222 .postImageUrl , .ua052b0c8858f42154a408ff98828c222 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .ua052b0c8858f42154a408ff98828c222 , .ua052b0c8858f42154a408ff98828c222:hover , .ua052b0c8858f42154a408ff98828c222:visited , .ua052b0c8858f42154a408ff98828c222:active { border:0!important; } .ua052b0c8858f42154a408ff98828c222 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .ua052b0c8858f42154a408ff98828c222 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .ua052b0c8858f42154a408ff98828c222:active , .ua052b0c8858f42154a408ff98828c222:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .ua052b0c8858f42154a408ff98828c222 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .ua052b0c8858f42154a408ff98828c222 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .ua052b0c8858f42154a408ff98828c222 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .ua052b0c8858f42154a408ff98828c222 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .ua052b0c8858f42154a408ff98828c222:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .ua052b0c8858f42154a408ff98828c222 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .ua052b0c8858f42154a408ff98828c222 .ua052b0c8858f42154a408ff98828c222-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .ua052b0c8858f42154a408ff98828c222:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Researching the Hip-Hop Culture EssayAnd music became a huge marketing tool as filmmakers, TV producers and manufacturers of everything from sneakers to soft drinks used hit songs and hot performers to sell their products. Rock and Pop Many classic rock acts hit the big time during the decade as well. Bon Jove, 132, Bruce Springiness, R. E. M. , and Aerostatic all had hot strings of memorable hits in the asss. John (Cougar) Melanoma hit it big with his Midwestern style of rock. Soloists Bryan Adams, Eddie Money, Sammy Hager, Billy Joel, Tina Turner, Elton John, and Steve Nicks all added their sounds to the mix, as well. More pop-sounding acts to hit it big included J. Sells Band, Hey Lewis and the News, Men at Work, and Stray Cats. Pure Pop Certain acts of the time were pure pop music at its best (or worst, depending on the music fan). Olivia Newton Johns Physical was one of the top hits of the decade. Jessie Girl by Rick Springfield and Shahs Take on Me were pure pop craftsmanship. Paula Abdul hit it big with such ditties as Straight Up and Cold Hearted Snake. Pop Superstars The asss saw the breakout success of many pop superstars, each of whom would leave indelible marks on the world of music. Such pop superstars borne out of the decade include Madonna, Michael Jackson, Maria Carrey, Whitney Houston, George Michael, and Prince. Each of these artists made a huge impact on the music scene for the asss and beyond. Sasss Many of the most popular acts that emerged in the Sasss were bands and artists who enjoyed a type of resurgence in the mainstream music scene after their popularity had dwindled for a decade or so. Other artists were Just starting out explanation of some of the most memorable artists that helped to define the era in terms of musical differentiations as well as some artists who are best forgotten. The early years of the sass began with a surge in popularity for music genres like techno and hip-hop that continued throughout the decade. The happy rock years in the mid-ass helped to pave the way for the bubblegum pop that followed in the waning years of the decade. Artists like Brittany Spears and Christina Agiler dominated the mainstream pop music scene well into the late sass and beyond. The later years of the decade also saw a new popularity for traditional boy bands. The Backstreet Boys, 98 Degrees, and Ann.s enjoyed the same amount of, if not ore, popularity than older boy bands like New Kids on the Block from the late sass. The music in the sass went through a series of changes in regards to the mainstream radio airwaves. Ironically, it was nearly a full-circle of styles and tastes that resulted in recreating the mainstream sound that is strongly reminiscent of popular music in the sass. Many of these bands and artists had staying power, though. Nearly a decade later, we are still being exposed to many of their antics or effects that they had on the musical front. Fortunately, several of these acts have tauter in recent years and continue to produce quality music while others with less talent have fallen by the wayside in recent years. Asss Some of the years most significant noise was being made far from studios and concert stages. The controversy over music sharing program Anapest began here. The creator Shawn Fanning was only 18 when he wrote the source codes that shook the music world. His free, Internet song-swapping service was the hype of downloaded everywhere. Anapest came under heavy legal fire during this year from the five giants of the recording industry Warner Brothers, MI, Sony, BMW, and Universal, who sued to shut down the service, citing alleged copyright infringement. .u15e07c1eb8d8ccfc051fd1e26378745a , .u15e07c1eb8d8ccfc051fd1e26378745a .postImageUrl , .u15e07c1eb8d8ccfc051fd1e26378745a .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u15e07c1eb8d8ccfc051fd1e26378745a , .u15e07c1eb8d8ccfc051fd1e26378745a:hover , .u15e07c1eb8d8ccfc051fd1e26378745a:visited , .u15e07c1eb8d8ccfc051fd1e26378745a:active { border:0!important; } .u15e07c1eb8d8ccfc051fd1e26378745a .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u15e07c1eb8d8ccfc051fd1e26378745a { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u15e07c1eb8d8ccfc051fd1e26378745a:active , .u15e07c1eb8d8ccfc051fd1e26378745a:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u15e07c1eb8d8ccfc051fd1e26378745a .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u15e07c1eb8d8ccfc051fd1e26378745a .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u15e07c1eb8d8ccfc051fd1e26378745a .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u15e07c1eb8d8ccfc051fd1e26378745a .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u15e07c1eb8d8ccfc051fd1e26378745a:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u15e07c1eb8d8ccfc051fd1e26378745a .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u15e07c1eb8d8ccfc051fd1e26378745a .u15e07c1eb8d8ccfc051fd1e26378745a-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u15e07c1eb8d8ccfc051fd1e26378745a:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: The Punk Rock Music Genre EssayMine has often been described as vile, violent, insensitive, misogynistic, and offensive, but Amines ability to throw down rhymes that outraged nearly everyone helped The Marshall Matters LAP rack up massive sales throughout 2000. Brittany Spears became a prominent figure in mainstream popular music and popular culture during the sasss. Her first two albums established her as a pop icon and broke sales records, while title tracks: Baby One More Time, and Oops! I Did It Again became international number-one hits. SASSS Electroscope, dance-pop, syntheses and electroscope, along with other forms of dance/ electronics/pop music that started in the sass, have become the very popular form of music today. In the early sass, some famous artist/bands are David Guest, Shakes, Carry Rae Spend, Kelly Clarion, Pitiful, Lady Gaga, Usher, Iranian, Brittany Spears, Kathy Perry, Justine Bibber, Nick Mina], and One Direction. Pop music, hip-hop, RB, and rock influence, comes back after about a ten-year, especially after the death of Michael Jackson, and still trends today. While most of the 2009, which did not happen since 2004 and was not prominent since 2000.

Why Kids Kill an Example of the Topic Psychology Essays by

Why Kids Kill Abstract Time and time again, just when we think that the world is finally becoming a better place, we are shocked with news of brutality committed by children. We do wonder, whats become of the kids who are supposed to be spending their days watching cartoons and playing with the kids around the neighborhood. Who has robbed them of that childhood innocence? Are we, youth and adults who make up the rest of the world partly to be blamed? This essay will discuss the factors which influence kids to move down the path of violence, and its effects to the society. Need essay sample on "Why Kids Kill" topic? We will write a custom essay sample specifically for you Proceed What Makes Them Tick? As painfully shocking their acts can be, sometimes the reasons for it can be really simple. The most common causes of children turning into cold-blooded killers are a history of abuse in their household, lack of attention from the parents, an act of desperation to achieve a motive, jealously for example. But we do have psychologists such as Shawn Johnston who has conducted more that 5000 interviews with both youth and adult offenders convinced that these little killers are individuals who are very self-centered and self-absorbed. School is still seen as one of the few concrete vehicles for change or social mobility for a large part of the population. The idea that school is a place for protection and also a place that needs to be protected by society no longer corresponds to the reality of most school establishments. This is why schools are often transformed into dangerous places that harbor robberies, homicides, sexual abuse, threats and property damage as well as other more brutal forms of violence. Lets also not forget another important influence in a kids life- the mass media. Children have been exposed to the violence in the name of entertainment from as early as we can remember, for example, the thieves in Ali Baba who were murdered with the boiling oil, Little Red Riding Hoods grandmother being eaten by the wolf and what the witch might have had in mind for Hansel and Gretel. Currently the greater focus on violence stems from both the volume and graphic details possible in modern electronic media which allows violence to be presented with considerably more explicit detail and realism than ever before. The statistics are even more startling. Twenty percent of students in our high schools have been known to be carrying weapons into the school compounds. And if this is not bad enough, on an average day, approximately thirteen children are said to be committing homicide. How Does this Impact the Society? We can never forget the spate of killings of children by children within schools in the US and numerous reported instances of aggressive acts among children in many countries. One of the most publicized events being the 1999 killing of 13 people by two students at Columbine High Scholl. Social commentators appear to assume that there is a direct causal link between exposure to violence in media such as television and a rise of violence among children within the society in general. Conclusion Instead of just being guardians, every mum and dad should master their parenting skills and support their children in every area possible which they need attention. Parents need to be continuously educated via classes or PTAs in school to help them cope with the stress of raising children. Research shows that increasing the awareness of parents about home and child management, and enhancing the development of excellent communication skills, healthy emotional ties, and parent-child bonding helps with kids being normal and well balanced. Parents need to ensure that theyve done the most important job of all- to give their children values, and this is what translates into ideas, dreams and a sense of purpose in life. Parent and even teachers should educate children on the beauty of loving one another and kindness, being honest and the necessity of freedom. Parents need to give kids consent to sacrifice for goodness. Children own a natural sense of mission. They intuitively feel that their lives have a higher purpose. Once parents fail to cultivate and refine this sensitivity, it can wither, and thats when sometimes the wonderful children can turn into human-killing monsters. References Grossman, D. (1999). We are training our kids to kill. The Saturday Evening Post, September/October, 54-5. Heide, K. (2004, August 30). Why Kids Kill Parents. Prasad, V.K, Smith L.J. (1994). Television commercials in violent programming: an experimental evaluation of their effects on children. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science,22(4), 340-51.

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buy custom Nursing essay Nursing has always been a profession that required proper knowledge and good practical skills. Proficiency of a nurse is more than just effective execution of ones daily tasks and duties because proper care and physicians assistance may have great influence on patients treatment and recovering. Thus, nursing education is about teaching future nurses the basics of their duties and implementing up-to-date knowledge in order to avoid mistakes in their future practice. Technology assistance and support in modern medical universities in this sense help achieve the desired level of education, when a nursing student both gains theoretical knowledge and trains his or her skills in various practical situations. This paper is about to explore some personal aspects of technological support during nursing education as well as provide various resources one needs while creating a health teaching project in a public high school. The abovementioned appears to be of critical interest to the nursing s tudents, as well as teachers, because it shares personal attitudes and proposals of a contemporary medical student. Modern technology assists nursing education in several ways: providing new information about genetics and genomics; supplying with less invasive and more accurate tools for diagnosis and treatment; implementing 3-D printing to substitute bones and body parts; using robotics and biometrics and providing revolutionary methods of treatment; and keeping electronic health records that make patients data easy to store and analyze (Huston, 2013). Of course, not every medical education institution has abovementioned technological advances, but the tendency for general update in terms of teaching modern treatment methods and technology remains strong. From my personal experience, the things that assisted me in studying as a nursing student blend theoretical knowledge and practice. Modern electronic libraries make available studying and analyzing of the numerous nursing practice cases worldwide, from caring and life support to the studies of various ethical problems and solutions. I am sure th at the availability of various medical data in electronic format makes it easy to reach and study, which lowers the quantity of malpractice cases among the future nurses. Modern laboratories provide reality-simulating treatment cases that make it possible to apply knowledge in the nursing sphere for practice. In such conditions, nursing students practice their skills on modern equipment, which also helps avoid possible future unprofessional conduct. Thus, I agree with the experts who assure that modern technological solutions today can reduce repetitive tasks, offer more proficient use of space, improve the setting of care, supply with various resources, and by these means improve safety and efficiency (Huston, 2013). The abovementioned factors also support every nurse as a life-long learner in terms of supplying nursing specialists with up-to-date medical and caring data and equipment. One of the requirements for the future nurses during a Community Health Nursing course is a conduct of a health teaching project in a public school. The conduct of the project consists of several stages, the primary of which is gathering material. The latter needs the analysis of certain medical resources that contain recent information on the selected subject. For instance, if the project is connected with informing students about a healthy lifestyle that includes healthy food and increasing exercising, one is to analyze medical resources discussing nutrition and fitness. One of the important resources in general is a National Center for Biotechnology Information. It is a website containing a huge number of academic studies in various spheres of medicine that can be used as a source of verified statistic information. Among other sources, one can name Free Medical Journals, which can also be used for gathering both statistic and theoretical information. Science Daily, in its turn, is a source of various information presented in the form of the online journal of non-academic style. It has a section connected with medicine that can be used for illustrations or presenting material in a captivating manner. The abovementioned resources are useful in terms of blending data of academic and non-academic styles to achieve goals of providing actual information and supporting students interest. Summarizing the presented information, one can ensure him or her that modern technology greatly assists nurses in their medical practice. Various technological inventions bring new conditions of caring and treatment, supporting nurses with latest theoretical materials and various equipment. Thus, one of the tasks of a contemporary nurse student is to develop self-studying skills. Such skills will help him or her in future perspectives as a lifelong learner. Among modern advances of medical technology, one can also name various digital magazines and electronic libraries containing academic information on modern nursing practice and treatment statistics. Such electronic storages greatly assist nursing students in conducting of their projects, from local university projects to community informing programs. Buy custom Nursing essay

US Use of EMF Weapons Devices on humans

US Use of EMF Weapons Devices on humans Introduction In the modern world, the US has the capability of utilizing electromagnetic (EMF) devices to harass, terrorize and execute human life. There is an ongoing government funded research to strength the use of such weapons, which raises concerns of human rights and freedom. The project was set up in 1950s by the CIA to influence human cognition, feeling and conduct.Advertising We will write a custom critical writing sample on US Use of EMF Weapons Devices on humans specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More By applying psychological understanding of individuals as social animal, the government of US has been funding studies aiming at controlling human behavior in the best ways possible. Human behavior can be maneuvered through segregation, drugs and hypnosis. The government has been funding researches such as application of wireless controlled electromagnetic energy. Such strategies are termed as information fighting and Non-lethal arma ments. The new technology aims at manipulating human feelings, interrupting thought and presenting agonizing twinge using magnetic fields. The government therefore has at its disposal some of the dangerous weapons that have already been used in suppressing human life. The weapons are usually used in quelling violence that could cause mass destruction, as well as lose life and property. The issue of human rights is an all-inclusive concept that every person in society must be granted. The use of such weapons violates the rights of some individuals because other means of solving conflicts in society exist. By signing the Military Commission Act of 2006, the US government through the congress aimed at denying people their rights and freedoms. The 2006 Act elucidates that the state has the authority and power to utilize electromagnetic weapons in torturing an individual perceived by the president to be a terrorist or associated with terrorism. The provision actually violates the constit utional right of an individual provided in the independence constitution. This paper analyses the effectiveness of the policy by looking at its strengths and weaknesses. The paper finally evaluates the rationale behind the use of the new technology in the US. Human Rights Individual rights are usually incompatible with state sovereignty but the constitution at independence identified that some rights are innate in an individual and that they could not be separated from an individual. Such rights include the right to liberty, life and the right to pursue pleasure. The state should therefore strive to offer these rights without compromise. In 1948, the United Nations declared the universal rights contained in chapter ten and five. The US government endorsed the rights and further incorporated them into the national laws. The charter provides that human beings have inherent rights that should always be given without concession. Such rights include various fundamental freedoms, justice and worldwide tranquility.Advertising Looking for critical writing on government? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The laws have been in operation for over six decades meaning that the US should respect them or consider them whenever designing national laws. Article ten of the UN constitution on human rights asserts that each individual is entitled to full egalitarianism and reasonable public trial by a sovereign and unbiased court in the deliberation of his/her rights and duties (Ignatieff 34). Furthermore, article five proscribes torment or unkind, brutal or humiliating treatment or castigation. The 2006 Military Commissions Act goes against all these provisions. The US government allowed the passage of the bill meaning that individual liberty and freedoms are no longer recognized in the state. On the other hand, the Universal Declaration of Human rights continue to assert that each individual has the right to freed om of thinking and freedom of expression, as well as attitude. This implies that each person has the right of giving his or her views voluntarily that is, without intimidation or being forced. The introduction and application of EMF weapons endangers this fundamental right. Freedom of thinking or cognitive independence is the natural right of each individual. This implies that an individual should perceive the world in his/her best understanding that is, without external interruption or influence. Each person has his/her own way of reasoning. We all have different orientations and perceptions to the world. The use of EMF weapons is a threat to human life and freedoms according to human rights groups. Use of EMF in extracting information from an individual is egregious human rights felony. Forceful extraction of information is illegal and in most cases inaccurate. An individual may be forced to give false information just because he/she is in pain. Such information is not useful at a ll because it does not have any theoretical grounding. Voluntary data is usually accurate and more applicable because it is usually ordered in a logical way. Human rights activists argue that EMF weapons are not used to fulfill the interests of Americans. Military elites set out to dominate the world after the Second World War without considering the interests and wishes of the majority in the state. The new technology is used to safeguard the interests of the ruling elites in many ways. Demonstrating workers and other aggrieved parties in the labor market are usually subjected to unnecessary torture only to satisfy the bourgeoisie (Landman 89). Those suspected to have engaged in property crime are also taken through pain in order to make them agree with the rules and regulations set by the ruling class. Furthermore, the activists continue to observe that victims of torture are people from particular races and social classes.Advertising We will write a custom critical writin g sample on US Use of EMF Weapons Devices on humans specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The bill serves to deny some people their right to equality. Individuals from the Middle East have no peace in the US because their movements are trailed always. They are usually suspected to be having hidden agendas, which exposes them to torture and unfair treatment. The state must come up with a different way or technique of identifying criminals instead of relying on cultural background of individuals. State Sovereignty As noted earlier, state sovereignty is incompatible with individual sovereignty. The interests of the state are superior to the desires and wishes of an individual because the state aims at fulfilling the public good. In this way, use of EMF weapons is justified and allowed because of state security and the nature of the international system. Terrorism and the rise of fundamentalism call for extra ordinary measures in case the state is to maintain its sovereignty (Paleri 115). The existence of the law frustrates the activities of extremist groups because relevant information is easily obtained through torture. All through history, there are times that the only language a man understands is violence. The use of brutal techniques in solving conflicts is valid due to the intrinsic nature of a human being. Man is inherently brutal, anarchic and self-centered. The existence of the central authority serves to control the individual self-interests. Such interests are always controversial and may pose a threat to life. As noted by early scholars, the society was on fire implying that life was short lived and indecent before the invention of the state. This forced individuals to sign a contract that would guarantee peace and harmony. The contract gave powers to one central authority, referred to as the state. The central authority or Leviathan as Hobbes could document, would have powers to exercise authority over individuals . Individuals on their part surrendered power to the Leviathan mainly to achieve greatness (Haftendorn 519). The state has a prime role of protecting the interests of the society because it is the custodian of the public welfare. Therefore, the state is authorized to use techniques such as trickery, negotiation, murder and any other available method, whether good or bad to maintain peace. It is not surprising for the state to use EMF weapons to execute its duties. In other words, it means that the Leviathan cannot share its powers with any other entity in society. Furthermore, it has powers granted to it by the majority to control life and property Conclusion The use of EMF weapons is justifiable and the state should come up with ways of strengthening its application. The existing international system is anarchic and tension full implying that the state must explore all possibilities and arrive at the best solution.Advertising Looking for critical writing on government? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This would require neglecting individual sovereignty because it is incompatible with state sovereignty in real practice. It is also established that man is intrinsically brutal and full of conflicts hence application of one technique in extracting important information from him would not function. The state would lose its hegemonic powers in the international system in case human rights considerations are taken seriously. Treating criminals or suspects softly would comprise state security meaning that force is the only viable technique. Strategists in the military borrow from psychology the idea that pain forces the brain to expose everything in it. Overall, much needs to be done to improve the use of EMF weapons in maintaining state security. Haftendorn, Helga. The Security Puzzle: Theory-Building and Discipline-Building in International Security. International Studies Quarterly, 35.1, 1991. Ignatieff, Michael. Human rights as politics and idolatry. 3rd ed. Princeton, NJ: Princeto n University Press, 2001. Landman, Todd. Studying Human Rights. London: Routledge, 2006. Paleri, Prabhakaran. National Security: Imperatives and Challenges. New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill, 2008.

Human trafficking Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

Human trafficking - Essay Example World governments, UN, Council of Europe, NATO and NGOs are making efforts to combat it. The U.S is leading efforts with efforts to combat it domestically and internationally. The U.S Trafficking and Violence Protection Act 2000 {TVPA} has defined human trafficking as comprising severe crimes: sex trafficking and forced labor. It defines sex trafficking as a crime where â€Å"a commercial sex act is induced by force, fraud, or coercion, or in which the person induced to perform such an act has not attained 18 years of age.† TVPA defines forced labor as â€Å"the recruitment, harboring, transportation, provision, or obtaining of a person for labor or services, through the use of force, fraud, or coercion for the purpose of subjection to involuntary servitude, peonage, debt bondage or slavery (http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/82902.pdf). Human trafficking is a transnational activity that does not consider boundaries or borders. Profits from human trafficking go into the strongboxes of international organized criminal outfits. Human trafficking is supported by other global crimes like money laundering document fraud and human smuggling (ht tp://www.lib.msu.edu/harris23/crimjust/human.htm). Human trafficking has a common denominator with all other forms of trafficking, i.e., reducing human beings to forms of property over which an unlimited power is exercised (Savona & Stefanizzi, 2007, p.10). Human trafficking is the ‘perfect’ crime because the risks of being caught are very less, negligible punishment awaits those unlucky enough to be apprehended, exorbitant profits are easily made and the whole business feeds on a traded item {human beings} that can be used and reused, marketed and exchanged (King & Clift, 2004, p.21). Human trafficking is the third most lucrative global illegal activity, surpassed only by illegal arms sales and illicit drugs. The human trafficking trade is widely and

The Development of West Torrens Council Area Essay

The Development of West Torrens Council Area - Essay Example The building height should have uniform scale with other developments. Fences and walls including street frontage are also part of the development plan. The site should provide sufficient space for vehicle access and parking. Visual privacy, private open space should be provided for each dwelling including acoustic privacy. The ground floor level of all the dwellings must be elevated above the design flood level to avoid the risk of the people and properties Areas affected within 100 metres by industrial noise and other impacts or residential developments located near the industrial boundaries should have a design to minimize potential negative visual and noise from the non residential activities. Outbuildings should not result in a significant loss of private open space. In the above mentioned development plan policies, the design of the proposed dwelling must conform to the design criteria. As we draft the designs of the dwelling areas, we must bear in mind the design criteria of the West Torrens residential zone policies. In doing so, the land developer, as well as the future dwellers are assured of healthy and problem free environment. The design proposal was made to conform with the development ... The 3 adjacent lots have identical areas of 383.70 sqm. And the 4th lot is 567.5 sqm. Lots 1, has a floor area of 129.76 sqm. While lot 2 has 131.49 sqm and lot 3 has 112.00 sqm. Lot 4 has the biggest floor area of 227.7 sqm. To conform with the West Torrens Council for Residential Zone Policy Area 40, the following are the conditions that will fit in the proposed residential dwellings for the site development plan. There are no significant trees in the area. There is no car parking restrictions in front of the houses because the roads are wide. There is no main streets like highways adjacent to the houses, only local primary and secondary streets. The adjacent houses are 3.00 meters in height. The three adjacent lots are facing the north side and the 4th adjacent lot is facing east. The houses facing north have a set back of 7.00 meters The house that faces the east side have a 5.00 meters set back The 3 adjacent lots are designed in such a way that they would have open spaces where a paved area is present and a soft landscape. Since there are no significant trees around the area, several trees are to be planted to give the area a healthy atmosphere. The front set backs of the 3 adjacent lots are 14 metere and they are bigger than the set back at the rear side. This is to give the would be dwellers to have a soft space for their relaxation and they can have a beautiful front landscaping and that it would be in line with the houses nearby. The paves area would be a future driveway or parking area. The paved area could even be considered a multipurpose area. In order to maintain the character of the house, a single storey dwelling would be perfect for the site character

Child development Essay Example for Free

Child development Essay The following essay will examine factors that affect a child’s learning and development. All children are distinctive individuals and differ in pattern and timing of maturation, as well as individual personality, learning style, cultural and family background. Each child has its own varying strengths, weaknesses, specific needs and skills. The age of a child is an effective indicator to the sequence of stages of development; however, it is only an estimation of maturation, as the mentioned independent factors will differ from child to child. The stages of development in children aged one to five years include the prenatal period, infancy, toddler stage, and early childhood and cover a plethora of progress in all areas of development. Expected changes in growth take place in all areas of development, particularly in the early years, and these include physical, intellectual, language, emotional, and social development. The first five years of life are crucial for expanding the foundations for learning and development. Research has shown that the developing child is learning to discover, communicate, and extend ideas about how things work. Read more: Factors that influence child development essay The successful progress of these abilities and skills depend largely on a child’s early environment. Parents, teachers, and care providers promote development and learning when they provide experiences that build on and extend the child’s capabilities. However, it is clear from evidence on both sides of the argument that development and learning result from a contribution of both biological factors and environmental factors. Empiricists believe environmental influences shape learning and development, while nativists emphasise inborn, genetic characteristics influence development (Bee, 2006b). Development could be described as an interactive relationship between the inherited qualities of an individual and the external environment. A child’s emotional and social development is shaped by internal influences, for example, a child may be inherently shy or outgoing, however the environment will also influence the child’s social and emotional development, such as successful first relationships, cultural values and how family and peers interact with the child, i. e. the child’s immediate social environment. Cognitive development could be influenced by internal factors. Research has shown that teratogens (legal or illegal drugs), smoking, alcohol consumption can have adverse affects on cognitive development (Bee, 2006 a). A study by Monuteaux, (2006) shows the negative effects of smoking on the development of a child, and there is speculative study that maternal diet and smoking could be causal factors of ADHD (Bakker, 2003). Scarr (1983) summarises the internal and external influences on children’s development, â€Å"Both genes and environments are constituents in the developmental system, but they have different roles. Genes direct the course of human experience, but experiential opportunities are also necessary for development to occur† (Scarr, 1983, pp. 433). It is interesting to consider cognitive development in children and the subsequent affect on learning and behaviour. Piaget was an influential Swiss psychologist who researched cognitive development. Piaget believes cognitive development transpires through a combination of direct experience from one’s environment and an instinctive structure of biological maturation. Piaget suggested individuals are born with intellect to serve as a basic function that assists adaptation to their environment (Shaffer, 1989). His theory proposes that development proceeds through a set of four stages from infancy to adulthood. Piaget believed that the first stage of cognitive development is the sensorimotor stage; this occurs in the first two years of a child’s life and involves infants using motor skills and all the senses, sight, smell, touch etc to explore and gain an understanding of the environment. Preoperational stage progresses from the sensorimotor stage and includes the use of language to understand the environment, images and symbols are also used to represent the environment; this is from two to seven years of age. Piaget believed language is egocentric at this stage. The next stage is termed concrete operations and children begin to use logical thought processes to further their understanding and occurs from ages seven to eleven. Formal Operation is the last stage Piaget believes takes place in cognitive development and it involves the ability to use abstract thought processes. This is from eleven onwards (Shaffer, 1989). The central idea of Piaget’s cognitive theory is the attainment of schemas, and further assimilation and accommodation of these schemas constantly return the child to a state of equilibrium. A schema is any thought or object that one may have experienced and is then organised to aid coherence. Assimilation is the process of adding new information to enhance the understanding of an existing schema, and thus producing a new schema. Accommodation is the adjustment of an existing schema in order to include new information. Equilibration is the term Piaget uses to describe the balance a child reaches when it satisfied with a schema, new information places the child in a state of disequilibrium or imbalance, until, assimilation and accommodation allow equilibration to take place. As with all theories, Piaget was criticised for placing too much emphasis on environment and not considering social interaction as an impacting force (Cohen, 1993). It has also been suggested that children appear to have existing understanding of basic principles, e. g. a study by Gibson and Walk, used a ‘visual cliff’ where a checkerboard pattern continued several feet below a glass table. The test showed that infants as young as 5 months were able to perceive depth, and would not proceed when they reached the end of the ‘cliff’ (Bee, 2006b). This shows that many foundations of cognitive ability are already present and further learning will increase cognitive development. Vygotsky is another central figure in the domain of constructivist theory; however, he differs from Piaget in that Vygotsky places more emphasis on social learning and its effect on cognitive development. His theory focuses on a term he called ‘zone of proximal development’ and defined it as â€Å"the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers† (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 86). Vygotsky believed that learning takes place in this zone. The idea of ZPD suggests that cognitive development is established by social learning with capable peers or adults and cooperative analytical skills. In contrast to Piaget, Vygotsky stated that development was an intricate lifelong process that could not be defined into stages, but instead is to be examined as a means of development rather than an end. Vygotsky’s theory reflects correlation between learning and development. Newborn children are constantly learning from their experiences and they form understanding from theses experiences, Vygotsky, believes this learning is directly linked to sociocultural perspective. As they grow older, infants readily learn from observation and cooperative learning with peers and adults (Moyles, Miller) The psychodynamic approach addresses children’s learning by focusing on internal mechanisms, such as instincts, conflicts and unconscious forces. A familiar idea of this theory is that unconscious as well as conscious forces regulate behaviour. Freud suggested three intuitive drives for survival, the sexual drive to reproduce the human race, hunger and pain trigger the instinct to preserve one’s life and aggressive drives are the third force. Freud’s theory is criticised on many accounts, mostly that he suggests the main underlying cause of problems are sexually related, and secondly it is scientifically difficult to measure the hidden unconscious of a being. Freud’s theory implies that children learn behaviour through the progress of three stages. The newborn and infant are driven by what he termed the id; this is an inborn instinct, which demands instant gratification. As the child grows older, it learns that it cannot achieve instant gratification all the time, and the ego develops as an intermediary pacifier, which takes social contexts into consideration and delays gratification. The superego is the higher form of moral reasoning and is often considered as a parental restrictor, this last stage develops much later in development (Bee, 2006b). It can be seen how Freud’s theory affects social and emotional development and behaviour in the first five years, as most children at this age are controlled by the id and the developing ego. Erikson’s theory is often viewed as an extension of Freud’s psychosexual theory of Development. Erikson suggests that development progresses over a lifespan and he portrays this in his theory of the eight stages of psychosocial development. His theory proposes that each stage has a conflict within it that must be resolved before proceeding to the next stage; each stage presents the opportunity for success or failure. The first three stages are relevant in the first five years of a child’s life and include emotional, social and cognitive development on behaviour acquisition. The first stage is trust versus mistrust and takes place in the period of the first two years of infancy; this stage propounds an emotional crisis in which the child must successfully develop trust and security and emotional well-being. If the care provider does not reciprocate emotional care positively the child becomes mistrustful. Once the child has learned trust, it advances to the next stage of autonomy versus shame, and approximately takes place in early childhood. This stage concentrates on the child’s ability to develop confidence and a sense of independence. Children at this age (approximately two to four years) begin to manage small parts of their lives, and Erikson suggests toilet training is a huge feat in establishing independence in a child. It also consists of decision-making and choice over things like food, clothes etc, if a child is unsuccessful in this stage then it leads to shame and a feeling of inadequacy. The third stage occurs from about three to five years of age, and incorporates the child’s ability to play and develop social skills of leadership or subordination, power and a sense of self. If the child cannot overcome the crisis then inhibition, fear and a prolonged development are the result. The successful child proceeds to the next stage and so forth (Brain 2005) The humanistic perspective argues that behaviour is subjective as individuals determine and control their own thoughts and actions. Maslow hypothesised a hierarchy of need, in which each level of the hierarchy had to be satisfied before the human need moved on to the next level. For example, according to Maslow’s hierarchy it is not perceived that an individual would desire the comfort of a spouse or children, if basic physiological needs such as food and water were not satisfied (Bee 2006a). Children develop and learn most productively in the environment of a community where they are safe and valued, and their emotional and physiological needs fulfilled. If physical nourishment is transpiring then Maslow’s theory depicts emotional well-being as an important factor, certainly all aspects of development are influenced by successfully accomplishing positive first relationships. This provides the constructive foundation for effective social and emotional development, which will inadvertently affect cognitive development as well. Skinner constructed a theory he termed operant conditioning, and based it on the notion that learning is a means of behaviour modification. His experiments show how he conditioned rats to pull a lever to release food, the incentive for the rats was the food and the required behaviour was pulling the lever. The theory illustrates that changes in behaviour are the consequences of an individual’s reaction to incentives that occur in any given environment; subsequently the reaction will produce an outcome. When a specific response is reinforced, behaviour is conditioned, and the individual will respond to a stimulus to achieve its incentive; the result will be consistent each time. The crucial aspect of Skinner’s model is reinforcement, a particular behaviour can be acquired through reward, and certain behaviours prevented through punishment (Brain, 2005). Skinner’s theory belongs to the Behaviourist approach and is effective in explaining some of the causes and modifications of behaviour; it is often used in schools to elicit particular behaviours from children (usually in the form of sweets or stickers). Social learning theory clarifies behaviour in terms of consistent equal correlation between cognitive, behavioural, and environmental influences. Social learning theory has four main components, attention, retention, motor reproduction and motivation, which cover physical, cognitive and behavioural development. Attention requires concentration so that the events are observed accurately. Retention includes the intellectual organization of information in order to store it effectively in the memory and remember the correct processes of events. Motor reproduction includes the physical ability to imitate the behaviour, for example, a human is not physically able to fly like superman. Motivation involves the child to be willing and motivated to imitate the behaviour. The observed consequences of a particular behaviour (whether punished or rewarded) may influence a child’s decision to imitate or not, Bandura called this modeling (Brain 205) One of the famous experiments conducted by Albert Bandura, known as the ‘Bobo doll’ experiment revealed that children imitated aggressive physical and verbal behaviour towards the dolls, exactly as they had observed, whereas the children who observed non-aggressive behaviour displayed practically no aggressive behaviour (Shaffer, 1989). Bandura suggests that social behaviour is learned primarily by observing and imitating the actions of others. Children are often observed imitating adults in role-play. Punishment and reward are also influences on behavioural development as mentioned in Skinner’s theory, for example, a child may observe a peer being rewarded with a sticker for tidying up and then learn that to obtain a sticker s/he must also tidy up. This theory facilitates an understanding of how behaviour is acquired and how it may be modified. John Bowlby developed attachment theory and he suggested that first relationships are the basis for young childrens development, predominantly their social and emotional development. Bowlby (1979: 129) states â€Å" attachment behaviour is held to characterize human beings from the cradle to the grave†; much of Bowlby’s work was on the maternal bond that develops with a child. He believed that the connection between mother and child, or caregiver and child has a basic gentle and evolutionary basis, in order for the child to receive appropriate care, protection and nourishment; it has a tendency to maintain nearness to the main caregiver. Bowlby maintained that a child displays attachment behaviour when separated from the main care provider, first as protest, then despair and finally as detachment. First relationships can be summarised as â€Å"a deeply rooted motivational system that ensures close contact between babies and adult caregivers who can protect, nurture, and guide their development† (Shonkoff, 2000, p 230). Bowlby expanded and utilised various research to support his theory, one of his early works included research on delinquent adolescents and discovered maternal deprivation to be a recurring matter. Michael Rutter (1981) criticized Bowlby’s theory, and suggested that early experiences cannot be held as direct underlying causes for later emotional distress, Rutter believed it is more significant how children are looked after in the period of severance not the actual severance itself (Cowie, 2002). Bowlby introduced three stages of attachment, during the first pre-attachment phase (0-2 months) babies do not develop a particular attachment, and are content to be cared for by anyone. In the second phase (2-7 months) babies show a firm attachment to the main caregiver and cling to this figure when in the presence of a stranger, Bowlby termed this ‘stranger fear’. The last phase is around two years of age and is labelled separation anxiety, the infant is confident to move away from the main caregiver provided they remain physically present for the child to return to Brain (2005). Bowlby suggested that constant loving care and nurturing was essential during the crucial phase between approximately 6 months and 3 years of age, maternal deprivation or separation from the primary caregiver would result in considerable detrimental effects on social and emotional development of the child (Cowie, 2002). Harlow and Harlow’s famous experiment on Rhesus monkeys provided support to Bowlby’s theory (Bowlby, 1973). In these experiments, young monkeys were separated from their mother shortly after birth. Two wire monkeys were substituted as artificial surrogate mothers. The first monkey was made of wire mesh and provided food; however, the second monkey was covered with foam and cloth and only provided comfort. The young monkeys nursed at the wire monkey but sought contact with the cloth monkey. The experiment showed that infants need a mother’s love and comfort, and it proved that infants prefer proximity and comfort from a mother, rather than just using the mother for nourishment. The young monkeys clutched to the soft cloth doll and explored more when in the presence of the soft cloth doll, and the doll seemed to provide them with a sense of security. Infants reared without normal social interaction with other monkeys, displayed either fearful or aggressive behaviour and the effects were apparent from two years of age, well into adulthood (Brain 2005). The experiment portrayed the importance of warmth, love and comfort that a nurturing mother or primary carer provides is essential for intellectual, social and emotional development. Mary Ainsworth’s research was based on an experiment to observe attachment behaviour between a child and the primary caregiver (usually the mother) the experiment is known as the strange situation. The procedure involves a child playing in a room, meanwhile the caregiver and stranger alternately enter and leave the room, the child’s play behaviour and responses to caregiver and stranger are observed. The experiment placed children in four categories of attachment, secure, insecure-avoidant, insecure-resistant and disorganized. Attachment theorists are realizing that children differ from birth, but individual personalities and development are influenced by social experience, environment, and the attachment relationship is affected by the characteristics of both child and caregiver (Parkes, 1993) Cultural differences in child-rearing practices have various implications and meanings across cultures. Culture defines a set of beliefs and patterns of behaviour; this can be in a social, religious, societal or ethnic context. Culture clearly has an influence on the development of children, Edwards and Gandini (1989) point out that culture organises and translates children’s behaviour and development (Hinde, 1993). â€Å"To understand development we must come to terms with the ways in which individuals, in developing their own self-concepts and participating in social relationships, both shape and are shaped by their social and cultural environment† (Hinde, 1993). In a research paper Reebye, (2006) found various studies on cultural differences in child rearing and the impact this had on child development. Chen et al. (1998) studied reticent behaviour in Chinese and Canadian children and the child-rearing attitudes of the relative mothers. The results showed that Chinese babies were significantly more withdrawn and shy than their Canadian counterparts, and the underlying cause of this behaviour difference lay in parental styles and attitudes. Taciturn behaviour was positively associated with the Chinese mother’s approval, whereas the Canadian mothers negatively received it, which implies a variation of the connotation of behaviour inhibition across both cultures (Reebye, 2006). Another example Reebye (2006) presents is a study conducted by Marcovitchet al (1997) which assessed the development, attachment and behavioural problems in adopted Romanian orphans between three to five years of age. The study revealed that children who had spent less time I institutional car displayed better development outcomes and more securely attached compared to the group of children who had spent more than six months in institutional care. The latter group were insecurely attached and scored less on development outcomes. The disadvantage of cross-cultural studies is the limitations of the range of studies in measuring attitudes, beliefs, cultural practices etc. Reebye (2006) continues to describe the importance of relationship development and its effects on affective, cognitive, social development and moral and ethical attitudes. Child-rearing practices and attachment directly influence these developmental factors, and it is important to remember that parenting practices are in turn influenced by social and cultural traditions. †The factors such as parental intuition, parental attitudes, attributions and beliefs, learned parenting skills, accepted cultural and societal parenting norms, family factors, and environmental factors such as extended family support, poverty or unemployment are the most influential ones. Each of these or all collectively, can be considered from a cross-cultural perspective. † (Reebye 2006). In today’s modern and often changing world, many cultures also change and adapt, from generation to generation. Changes in societal norms, immigration and such alike affect child-rearing practice considerably, such single parenting is a common family structure, yet in the Victorian times was extremely rare and frowned upon, other changes include inter-racial adoptions, parenting by same sex couples, use of surrogate mothers etc. It can be suggested that children’s social, emotional and cognitive development is indisputably influenced by environmental factors, genetic compositions, attachment and first relationship, cultural traditions and this is reflected in their unique personalities and behaviour. â€Å"In general, there is a need to understand multiple outcomes of child development (cognitive, physical, social, and emotional) within the context of multiple factors (social, economic, cultural, and community-level)† (The National Institute of Health, 2006). The first five years are important to understand the influences and causal links of child development in the early years. This may facilitate children’s well-being and ensure that government policies regarding children are reflective of child development needs, in particular families living in poverty or deprived areas. For example, quality of schools and education will affect cognitive development, and racial, gender, and religious integration will have positive effects on social development. It can be inferred that positive emotional development underpins all other areas of development, and if emotional development is defective then it will be replicated across other areas of development. In essence, all areas of development are interwoven and interdependent. The first five years are crucial for positive development, basic needs such as food, sleep and safety ensures good physical development, providing love, comfort and positive first relationships and attachments is essential to assist emotional development, which will also helps social development, and the correct stimulation and interaction ensures healthy cognitive development. REFERENCES Bakker, S. C. Van Der Meulen, E. M. Buitelaar, J. K. Sandkuijl, L. A. Pauls, D. L. Monsuur, A. J. Vant Slot, R. Minderaa. R. B. Gunning, W. B. Pearson, P. L. Sinke, R. J. (2003) â€Å"A Whole-Genome Scan in 164 Dutch Sib Pairs with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: Suggestive Evidence for Linkage on Chromosomes 7p and 15q† American Journal of Human Genetics, Vol. 72, pp. 1251-1260 Bee, H. (2006a) Lifespan Development, Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc Bee, H. (2006b) The Developing Child, Boston, MA: Parson Education, Inc Bowlby, J. (1973) Separation: Anxiety Anger. Vol. 2 of Attachment and loss London: Hogarth Press; New York: Basic Books; Harmondsworth: Penguin Brain, C and Mukherjee, P. (2005) Understanding Child Psychology, Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes Ltd Cohen, D. (1993) The Development of Play, 2nd edition. London: Routledge Cowie, H. (2002) ‘Child Care and Attachment’ in Barnes, P (Ed), Personal, Social and Emotional Development of Children Milton Keynes: Blackwell Publishers Ltd Hinde, R and Hinde, J. (1993) ‘Perspectives on Attachment’ in Parkes, C. M. (Editor), Attachment Across the Life Cycle, Florence, KY, USA: Routledge http://site. ebrary. com/lib/uclan Monuteaux, M. C. Blacker, D. Biederman, J. Fitzmaurice, G and Buka, S. L. (2006) â€Å"Maternal smoking during pregnancy and offspring overt and covert conduct problems: a longitudinal study† Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, Vol. 47, No. 9, pp. 883–890 National Institute of Health. (2006) The science and Ecology Of Early Development (SEED), http://grants. nih. gov/grants/guide/pa-files/PA-04-113. html Reebye, P. N, Ross. S. E and Jamieson. K (2006) A Literature review of the child-Parent/ Caregiver attachment theory and Cross-Cultural Practices influencing attachment, www. attachmentacrosscultures. org/research/#1: accessed on 19/12/2006 Scarr, S. , K. McCartney. (1983) ‘How people make their own environments: A theory of genotype-environment effects’, Child Development, Vol. 54, pp 425-35. Shaffer, D. R. (1989) Developmental Psychology, Childhood and Adolescence, 2nd Edition, California: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company. Shonkoff, J. P. (2000) From Neurons to Neighbourhoods: The Science of Early Childhood Development. Washington, DC, USA: National Academy Press, http://site. ebrary. com/lib/uclan/ Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind and society: The development of higher mental processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

From Korea to Harvard :: College Admissions Essays

From Korea to Harvard My experience at the international science festival festival last summer was definitely one of the best times I've had. The ten days I spent in Seoul, South Korea, were not just about traveling to a foreign country or even about learning science. To me, the festival was more about meeting people and understanding their cultures. The opening ceremonies of the festival immediately ignited my excitement. I was surrounded on all sides by students from all over the Pacific Rim: Australia, New Zealand, China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore, the Philippines, Thailand, Japan, and of course, Korea. It's hard for me to describe how moved and amazed I was to see so many people of so many different backgrounds brought together in one place. All of us were so different and yet so similar. We were brought up and shaped by completely different forces and experiences, but all of us shared a common love-science. I was fascinated to observe in a group setting the contrast between the overly accommodating nature of the easterners and the stronger emphasis on individualism of the westerners. During a group project on creating a model city, I remember the easterners busy building police stations and apartment complexes. A couple of westerners, on the other hand, suggested including a sports stadium and a golf course-options obviously not on the agenda of the easterners, who, however, hesitated to say "No!" I suggested that we could replace the stadium with an airport, an idea quickly accepted by all. This experience showed me that different cultures don't have to conflict but rather can compliment other cultures in finding a better solution. The closing ceremonies were to me the best example of the cultural awareness fostered during the festival: on the first day, almost none of the Americans were brave enough to try the kimchi and mystery meat that was served to us; by the end of the festival, however, all 500 students were singing the APEC theme song together at the top of their lungs. I was completely immersed in culture, diversity, and new ideas for ten short yet extremely fulfilling days. From this experience, I realized that seeing other cultures allowed me to learn more about my own, as it enabled me to understand mine from a different perspective. My experience at the APEC festival helped broaden my perspective and showed me a glimpse of just how many possibilities and ideas there are in the world.

Reason vs. Passion in Jane Eyre Essay

Reason and passion are two emotions that are shown by most of the characters in Jane Eyre. Some people ´s behaviour is governed by rationality and they think carefully about all what they do. The opposite happens with impulsive people who follow their feelings, prevailing passion to reason. Passionate people do not think before performing their actions, because of that they are considered more authentic than people who act guided by reason. However, sometimes passion must be left behind and people have to act according to reason and consciously. This situation is clearly shown in Jane Eyre, the novel written by Charlotte Brontà «, in which the two most important characters show strong passion and reason in their personalities. Through conflict, allusion and symbolism the writer tells the story of Jane Eyre and Mr. Rochester. Conflict is used by the writer to show the collision and disagreement between two persons and also the inside conflict in a person. In the novel a conflict between two human beings is clearly expressed in the relationship that Jane has with her evil aunt Mrs. Reed. Jane feels humiliated and denigrated by her aunt, she cannot bear any more the cruel treatment and she feels dominated by fury. The writer describes Jane ´s behaviour as â€Å"..shaking from head to foot, thrilled with ungovernable excitement† (29), uncontrollable and irrepressible as all kinds of passion. The conflict between them is clearly shown by the writer when Jane says, â€Å"†¦I am glad you are no relation of mine: I will never call you aunt again so long as I live.† (29). The lack of love and the difficult relation between them is evident in those lines. Moreover, Jane ´s life is almost always a fight between reason and passion, in the novel the author shows how women in Victorian ´s time s were not allowed to guide their decisions by feelings or emotions. Restrictions and limitations were ordinary in women ´s life and those restrictions were the cause of many internal female conflicts. An example of this occurs with Jane when she says,†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦I must renounce love and idol. One dear word comprised my intolerable duty- â€Å"Depart!†Ã¢â‚¬ (279). In this situation Jane has to fight against her passion; against her love and hope to stay with Mr. Rochester despite knowing that he was already married. Jane says, â€Å"..Mr. Rochester I must leave you.† (268) she is concerned about what she must do, even when it does not concurs to what she wants. Guided by her reason she leaves Thornfield and she exclaims, â€Å"Farewell! Was the cry of my heart as I left him. Despair added, Farewell for ever!.† The author shows clearly, how reason and passion can produce conflicts with other people and also internal ones. Allusion is also used by the writer to indicate the power that passion and reason have in the characters ´ personalities. Allusion to God and the Bible are common in the novel. At that time people ´s behaviour was governed by Christian duties and they had to struggle between those duties and their natural human passion. Jane Eyre is not the only character who shows passion in the novel and also Mr. Rochester has a strong and fervent presence which is demonstrated by the writer in an example when he says, â€Å"†¦By God I long to exert a fraction of Samson ´s strength, and break the entanglement like tow!†(267). The reference to Samons,(â€Å"the man of the sun†) who is mentioned in the Bible because of his supernatural strength given by God, represents the violent and uncontrollable emotions of Mr. Rochester expressed when Jane tells him her will of leaving Thornfield and him. Furthermore, allusion to God is used many times in the novel and it denotes the imp ortance of religion at that time and the strong belief in God and divine punishments. However, many times Jane ´s behaviour is against will of God but also against society ´s rules. An example of that is stated by the writer when she says â€Å"†¦I am not talking to you now through the medium of custom, conventionalities, nor even of mortal flesh;-†¦Ã¢â‚¬ (223), it clearly shows Jane ´s rebellion and audacity to talk to a man inappropriately. Besides, she says, ..†it is my spirit that addresses your spirit; just as if both had passed through the grave, and we stood at God ´s feet, equal,-as we are!† (223) here it is expressed a divine equality and at the same time the human passion which does not know about reason. On the other hand, allusion to God also expresses the power of faith in guiding Jane to follow her reason and an example of that is given when she says: â€Å"I will keep the law given by God; sanctioned by man. I will hold to the principl es received by me when I was sane, and not mad- as I am now.† (280). Jane ´s madness is actually her passion, her love and the law of God is the sensible behaviour that she has to have, and even which she used to have. That conscious and prudent conduct is her reason, which represents the will of God. Moreover, when she leaves Mr. Rochester her last words are blessings, she says, †God bless you, my dear master!† (281). It states her strong belief in God and the peace of the right decision making. Those allusions to God represent the importance of religion in that period of time in which the novel was written and how it influences in people ´s reason and passion. Central character ´s personalities are well developed through fire, symbolism of passion and water as symbolism of reason. Fire represents passion and sexual appetite in the character of Bertha Mason, Mr. Rochester ´s wife, who sets fire to his bedroom. That scene is described by Jane, who says, â€Å"Tongues of flame darted round the bed: the curtains were on fire. In the midst of blaze and vapour, Mr. Rochester lay stretched motionless, in deep sleep.† (130). The fire around the bed is a clear representation of sex and passion and it is reasserted when Mr. Rochester describes Bertha as â€Å"intemperate and unchaste† (270) which are adjectives related with uncontrollable passion and sex. Then another incident is the fire which destroys Thornfield and in which Bertha dies and Mr. Rochester goes blind. A host tells Jane the story that happens two month after her departure and he says,†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦she sets fire to the hangings of the room next to her own (†¦) a nd made her way to the chamber that had been the governess† (378). It reflects Bertha ´s intention to kill Rochester and Jane ´s love and represents the danger of uncontrollable feelings. On the other hand, water symbolizes the extinction of fire and the reason that defeats passion. It happens when Jane saves Mr. Rochester ´s life in the bedroom fire and she says, â€Å"I rushed to his basin and ewer; fortunately,(†¦) both were filled with water. I heaved them up, deluged the bed and its occupant† It states Jane ´s intention not to follow her feelings towards Mr.Rochester but act guided by reason. Moreover, she says, â€Å"by God aid, succeeded in extinguishing the flames†, which indicates Jane ´s will of acting guided by religious rules and extinguishes her inappropriate love. Fire as imagery of the danger of improper feelings and water as representation of reason and death of passion tells the character ´s personalities. In conclusion, Charlotte Brontà « exposes through conflict, allusion and symbolism how passion and reason are the guide of characters ´ behaviour at different situations in the novel. Jane as a child and when she is treated unjustly is guided by passion, but then when she grows up she learns how to control her passionate emotions. However, in some situation she is not able to do it and reacts with rage, for instance when Mr. Rochester tells her that she has to leave Thornfield. In contrast she follows her reason when she knows that he is already married, but it is possible because of her strength and religion belief. She takes the hard decision of leaving her love, faces an uncertain reality and only comes back when Mr. Rochester is widow. He ends up being a partial dependent husband because of his disabilities and it could be interpreted as a punishment for his excessive and improper passion. It is not a classical romantic novel but the romance genre is predominant and in the end love survives dangers and difficulties.

Introduction speech Essay

Every single person faces obstacles, whether they are big or small. Either learning how to swim, driving a car for the first time, or even waking up for an 8AM class. These are just a few obstacles that occur daily. One major obstacle that constantly gets overlooked is change. A prime example of a major change in a child’s life is the transition from high school to college. Starting college, a ne place with new people, can be a daunting task for anyone. Your classmate, Abby Howell showed her true character and optimism when her adjustment to Madison didn’t go as expected. Abby, like any other 18 year old, was nervous about coming to college. She was nervous about leaving her safe haven she called home, and because of that she decided to chose Madison, a mere 9 miles from her family in McFarland. Abby arrived to school with an optimistic mindset. The nerves and jitters had surpassed and she was truly starting to get the hang of things. It was August 30th, and the sun was beaming down on Abby as she rode her bike. The sidewalk was packed so Abby had to keep switching from the sidewalk to the grass in order to avoid the pedestrians. However, one time while making the uphill venture toward the sidewalk, her front tire clipped the edge of the curb and her bike tumbled over. Abby broke the fall with her hands and ended up shattering her wrist. It’s kind of ironic; Abby was looking out for the well being of others and in turn was the one that ended up getting injured. Rather than dwell on the unlucky situation, Abby views it in a positive way and lets everyone know that â€Å"it could have been worse.† The way in which Abby handled breaking her wrist just goes to show her optimistic view on life. Abby is constantly looking at the glass half full, and is always searching for the best in every situation. Honestly, how would you have reacted?

Introduction to Pop - The History of Soft Drinks

Introduction to Pop - The History of Soft Drinks Soft drinks can trace their history back to the mineral water found in natural springs. Bathing in natural springs has long been considered a healthy thing to do, and mineral water was said to have curative powers. Scientists soon discovered that gas carbonium or carbon dioxide was behind the bubbles in natural mineral water. The first marketed soft drinks (non-carbonated) appeared in the 17th century. They were made from water and lemon juice sweetened with honey. In 1676, the Compagnie de Limonadiers of Paris was granted a monopoly for the sale of lemonade soft drinks. Vendors would carry tanks of lemonade on their backs and dispensed cups of the soft drink to thirsty Parisians. Joseph Priestley In 1767, the first drinkable man-made glass of carbonated water was created by Englishman Doctor Joseph Priestley. Three years later, Swedish chemist Torbern Bergman invented a generating apparatus that made carbonated water from chalk by the use of sulfuric acid. Bergmans apparatus allowed imitation mineral water to be produced in large amounts. John Mathews In 1810, the first United States patent was issued for the means of mass manufacture of imitation mineral waters to Simons and Rundell of Charleston, South Carolina. However, carbonated beverages did not achieve great popularity in America until 1832, when John Mathews invented his apparatus for making carbonated water. John Mathews then mass-manufactured his apparatus for sale to soda fountain owners. Health Properties of Mineral Water The drinking of either natural or artificial mineral water was considered a healthy practice. The American pharmacists selling mineral waters began to add medicinal and flavorful herbs to unflavored mineral water. They used birch bark, dandelion, sarsaparilla, and fruit extracts. Some historians consider that the first flavored carbonated soft drink was that made in 1807 by Doctor Philip Syng Physick of Philadelphia. Early American pharmacies with soda fountains became a popular part of culture. The customers soon wanted to take their health drinks home with them and a soft drink bottling industry grew from consumer demand. The Soft Drink Bottling Industry Over 1,500 U.S. patents were filed for either a cork, cap, or lid for the carbonated drink bottle tops during the early days of the bottling industry. Carbonated drink bottles are under a lot of pressure from the gas. Inventors were trying to find the best way to prevent carbon dioxide or bubbles from escaping. In 1892, the Crown Cork Bottle Seal was patented by William Painter, a Baltimore machine shop operator. It was the first very successful method of keeping the bubbles in the bottle. Automatic Production of Glass Bottles In 1899, the first patent was issued for a glass-blowing machine for the automatic production of glass bottles. Earlier glass bottles had all been hand-blown. Four years later, the new bottle-blowing machine was in operation. It was first operated by the inventor, Michael Owens, an employee of Libby Glass Company. Within a few years, glass bottle production increased from 1,500 bottles a day to 57,000 bottles a day. Hom-Paks and Vending Machines During the 1920s, the first Hom-Paks were invented. Hom-Paks are the familiar six-pack beverage carrying cartons made from cardboard. Automatic vending machines also began to appear in the 1920s. The soft drink had become an American mainstay.

Catapult Definition, History, and Types

Catapult Definition, History, and Types Descriptions of Roman sieges of fortified cities invariably feature siege engines, the most familiar of which are the battering ram or aries, which came first, and the catapult (catapulta, in Latin). Here is an example from the first century A.D. Jewish historian Josephus on the siege of Jerusalem: 2. As for what is within the camp, it is set apart for tents, but the outward circumference hath the resemblance to a wall, and is adorned with towers at equal distances, where ​between the towers stand the engines for throwing arrows and darts, and for slinging stones, and where they lay all other engines that can annoy the enemy, all ready for their several operations.Josephus Wars. III.5.2 According to Recent Finds of Ancient Artillery, by Dietwulf Baatz, the most important sources of information on ancient siege engines come from ancient texts written by Vitruvius, Philo of Byzantium (third century B.C.) and Hero of Alexandria (first century A.D.), relief sculptures representing sieges, and artifacts found by archaeologists. The Meaning of the Word Catapult Etymology Online says the word catapult comes from the Greek words kata against and pallein to hurl, an etymology that explains the working of the weapon, since the catapult is an ancient version of the cannon. When Did the Romans Start to Use the Catapult? When the Romans first started using this type of weapon isnt known with certainty. It may have begun after the Wars with Pyrrhus (280-275 B.C.), during which the Romans had an opportunity to observe and copy Greek techniques. Valà ©rie Benvenuti argues that the inclusion of towers within Roman-built city walls from about 273 B.C. suggests that they were designed to hold siege engines. Early Developments in the Catapult In Early Artillery Towers: Messenia, Boiotia, Attica, Megarid, Josiah Ober says the weapon was invented in 399 B.C. by engineers in the employ of Dionysios of Syracuse. [See Diodorus Siculus 14.42.1.] Syracuse, in Sicily, was important to Megale Hellas, the Greek-speaking area in and around southern Italy [see: Italic Dialects]. It came into conflict with Rome during the Punic Wars (264-146 B.C.). In the century after the one in which the Syracusans invented the catapult, Syracuse was home to the great scientist Archimedes. That early fourth century B.C. type of catapult is probably not the one most of us envision- a torsion catapult that throws stones to break down enemy walls, but an early version of the Medieval crossbow that shot missiles when the trigger was released. It is also called a belly-bow or gastraphetes. It was attached to a stock on a stand that Ober thinks could be moved a bit for aiming, but the catapult itself was small enough to be held by a person. Likewise, the first torsion catapults were small and probably aimed at people, rather than walls, like the belly-bow. By the end of the fourth century, however, Alexanders successors, the Diadochi, were using the large, wall-breaking stone-tossing, torsion catapults. Torsion Torsion means they were twisted to store energy for the release. Illustrations of the twisted fiber look like twisted skeins of knitting yarn. In Artillery as a Classicizing Digression, an article showing the lack of technical expertise of ancient historians who describe artillery, Ian Kelso calls this torsion the motive force of the wall-wrecking catapult, which he refers to as mural artillery. Kelso says that although faulty technically, the historians Procopius (6th century A.D.) and Ammianus Marcellinus (fl. mid-fourth century A.D.) give us valuable insight into siege engines and siege warfare because they were in the besieged cities. In On Artillery Towers and Catapult Sizes T. E. Rihll says there are three components for describing catapults: Power Source:BowSpringMissileSharpHeavyDesignEuthytonePalintone Bow and spring have been explained- the bow is the one like the crossbow, the spring involves torsion. Missiles were either sharp, like arrows and javelins or heavy and generally blunt even if not round, like stones and jars. The missile varied depending on the objective. Sometimes a besieging army wished to break down the city walls, but at other times it aimed to burn the structures beyond the walls. Design, the last of these descriptive categories hasnt yet been mentioned. Euthytone and palintone refer to different arrangements of the springs or arms, but both can be used with torsion catapults. Instead of using bows, torsion catapults were powered by springs made of skeins of hair or sinews. Vitruvius calls a two-armed (palintone) stone-thrower, powered by torsion (spring), a ballista. In The Catapult and the Ballista, J. N. Whitehorn describes the parts and operation of the catapult using many clear diagrams. He says the Romans realized rope was not a good material for the twisted skeins; that, generally, the finer the fiber, the more resiliency, and strength the twisted cord would have. Horsehair was normal, but womens hair was best. In a pinch horse or oxen, neck sinew was employed. Sometimes they used flax. Siege engines were covered protectively with hiding to prevent enemy fire, which would destroy them. Whitehorn says catapults were also used to create fires. Sometimes they hurled jars of the waterproof Greek fire. The Catapults of Archimedes Like the battering ram, animal names were given types of catapults, especially the scorpion, which Archimedes of Syracuse used, and the onager or wild ass. Whitehorn says Archimedes, in the last quarter of the third century B.C., made advances in artillery so that Syracusans could hurl enormous stones at Marcellus men during the siege of Syracuse, in which Archimedes was killed. Supposedly the catapults could hurl stones weighing 1800 pounds. 5. This was the siege equipment with which the Romans planned to assault the citys towers. But Archimedes had constructed artillery which could cover a whole variety of ranges, so that while the attacking ships were still at a distance he scored so many hits with his catapults and stone-throwers that he was able to cause them severe damage and harass their approach. Then, as the distance decreased and these weapons began to carry over the enemys heads, he resorted to smaller and smaller machines, and so demoralized the Romans that their advance was brought to a standstill. In the end Marcellus was reduced in despair to bringing up his ships secretly under cover of darkness. But when they had almost reached the shore, and were therefore too close to be struck by the catapults, Archimedes had devised yet another weapon to repel the marines, who were fighting from the decks. He had had the walls pierced with large numbers of loopholes at the height of a man, which were about a palms bre adth wide at the outer surface of the walls. Behind each of these and inside the walls were stationed archers with rows of so-called scorpions, a small catapult which discharged iron darts, and by shooting through these embrasures they put many of the marines out of action. Through these tactics he not only foiled all the enemys attacks, both those made at long range and any attempt at hand-to-hand fighting, but also caused them heavy losses.Polybius Book VIII Ancient Writers on the Topic of Catapults Ammianus Marcellinus 7 And the machine is called tormentum as all the released tension is caused by twisting (torquetur); and scorpion, because it has an upraised sting; modern times have given it the new name onager, because when wild asses are pursued by hunters, by kicking they hurl back stones to a distance, either crushing the breasts of their pursuers, or breaking the bones of their skulls and shattering them.Ammianus Marcellinus Book XXIII.4 Caesars Gallic Wars When he perceived that our men were not inferior, as the place before the camp was naturally convenient and suitable for marshaling an army (since the hill where the camp was pitched, rising gradually from the plain, extended forward in breadth as far as the space which the marshaled army could occupy, and had steep declines of its side in either direction, and gently sloping in front gradually sank to the plain); on either side of that hill he drew a cross trench of about four hundred paces, and at the extremities of that trench built forts, and placed there his military engines, lest, after he had marshaled his army, the enemy, since they were so powerful in point of number, should be able to surround his men in the flank, while fighting. After doing this, and leaving in the camp the two legions which he had last raised, that, if there should be any occasion, they might be brought as a reserve, he formed the other six legions in order of battle before the camp.Gallic Wars II.8 Vitruvius The tortoise of the battering ram was constructed in the same way. It had, however, a base of thirty cubits square, and a height, excluding the pediment, of thirteen cubits; the height of the pediment from its bed to its top was seven cubits. Issuing up and above the middle of the roof for not less than two cubits was a gable, and on this was reared a small tower four stories high, in which, on the top floor, scorpions and catapults were set up, and on the lower floors a great quantity of water was stored, to put out any fire that might be thrown on the tortoise. Inside of this was set the machinery of the ram, in which was placed a roller, turned on a lathe, and the ram, being set on top of this, produced its great effects when swung to and fro by means of ropes. It was protected, like the tower, with rawhide.Vitruvius XIII.6 References Origin of Greek and Roman Artillery, Leigh  Alexander; The  Classical Journal, Vol. 41, No. 5 (Feb. 1946), pp. 208-212. The Catapult and the Ballista, by J. N. Whitehorn;  Greece Rome  Vol. 15, No. 44  (May 1946), pp. 49-60. Recent Finds of Ancient Artillery, by Dietwulf Baatz;  Britannia  Vol. 9, (1978), pp. 1-17. Early Artillery Towers: Messenia, Boiotia, Attica, Megarid, by Josiah Ober;  American Journal of Archaeology  Vol. 91, No. 4 (Oct. 1987), pp. 569-604. The Introduction of Artillery in the Roman World: Hypothesis for a Chronological Definition Based on the Cosa Town Wall, by Valà ©rie Benvenuti;  Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome, Vol. 47 (2002), pp. 199-207. Artillery as a Classicizing Digression, by Ian Kelso;  Historia: Zeitschrift fà ¼r Alte Geschichte  Bd. 52, H. 1 (2003), pp. 122-125. On Artillery Towers and Catapult Sizes, by T. E.  Rihll;  The Annual of the British School at Athens  Vol. 101, (2006), pp. 379-383. Rihll, Tracey. The Catapult: A History. Kindle Edition, 1 edition,W estholme Publishing, January 23, 2007.